Aristotle and Rhetoric
| Shared Socrates and Plato's concern for universal knowledge and eternal standards |
| had more concern for the concrete and practical than Plato did |
| 2. sense-knowledge is limited and inaccurate |
| Did not agree that the Forms had an independent existence |
| matter and form are of equal importance |
| union of the two produces the universe |
| forms are causes that shape matter |
| Teleological view of the universe |
| but the spiritual does not overshadow the material |
| body animated by spark of Creative Reason |
| returns to First Cause upon death |
| Self-realization the highest good |
| dependent upon good health and control of emotions |
| sophrosyne 'nothing too much' |
| Polis is natural, not an artificial institution |
| man is a 'political' animal, i.e. he belongs in a polis |
| developed among the Sophists in 5th c BCE |
| as an 'art' it is a product of writing |
| e.g. Aristotle's Art of Rhetoric |
| preserved orality in literate cultures until the 19th CE |
| more important in Greek culture than philosophy |
| loci communes 'commonplaces' |
| collections of sayings on various topics drawn on by orators |
| similar to formulas in oral culture |
| orator speaks against adversaries |
| Western culture maximized oppositions |
| contrasts with Indian and Chinese culture |
| oratory as paradigm of all verbal expression |
| maintained a high agonistic pitch in all discourse |
| knowledge tested by oral dispute, not written exams |
Alexander and the Hellenistic World
Conquest of Greece by Macedonia |
| local lords held land directly from the king |
| ruled by Hellenizing kings |
| patronage of Greek poets and intellectuals, eg. |
| Hippocrates, father of medicine |
| Philip of Macedon (382-336 BCE) |
| conquered Greece, mid 4th c |
| established League of Corinth |
Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) |
| "Recension of the Casket" |
| visited the "tombs" of Achilles and Ajax |
| Macedonian army out-numbered and under-financed |
| but the best army in eastern Mediterranean |
| Alexander lead his army into "battle" himself |
| conquests extended to modern border of Pakistan and India |
| capture of Persian treasury |
| Seleucid dynasty in Syria, Mesopotamia and Persia |
| Greek culture spread through Middle East |
| An increase in prosperity |
| increased circulation of money |
| Formation of a single cultural and economic unit |
| Eastern Mediterranean coast |
| Greece: two confederate leagues |
| ruled by council of representatives from the poleis |
| dependent on poleis for revenues |
| no return to independent poleis |
| Cultural rivalry among the kingdoms |
| libraries and centers of learning |
Alexandria
| founded on north coast of Egypt by Alexander in 332 |
| famous for its library and mouseion (research institute) founded by Ptolemy I |
| center of both literary and scientific studies |
| modeled after the Academy of Plato and the Lyceum of Aristotle |
| a residence for the scholars |
| scholars paid to do research |
| some students who probably served as research assistants |
| teaching became more important in Roman times |
| a resource for the resident scholars and others |
| scrolls obtained in many ways: purchase, confiscation, copying |
| contained over 500,000 scrolls |
| included books on Oriental religions |
| center of the project for translating the Hebrew Bible into the Greek of the Septuagint |
| done by and for the large hellenized Jewish community in Alexandria |
| version usually quoted in the New Testament |
| beginning of textual criticism, the preservation and proper understanding of works written in past ages |
| investigation of the language and diction of a text |
| investigation of the history and culture of the period in which a text was composed |
| comparison of different versions of a text |
| the production of glosses and commentaries |
| Alexandria played a key role in the preservation and transmission of texts of |
Hellenistic Philosophy
A wide variety of philosophical schools developed during this period. The Epicureans and Stoics had the most lasting impact.
Epicureanism (Epicurus, 342-271 BCE) |
| goal human happiness, not knowledge |
| sense-perception basis of all knowledge |
| virtue not an end in itself |
| should increase happiness |
| gods have no interest in humans |
| existence ceases upon death |
| pleasure is the absence of pain and trouble |
| ataraxia: condition of being undisturbed, w/out trouble, pain or responsibility |
| every excess of pleasure balanced by an excess of pain |
| laws and institutions just if they contribute to welfare of individual |
| political life should be avoided |
| withdrawal from the world |
| pursue individual happiness |
| live in harmony with nature |
| divine reason the guiding principle in nature |
| everyone has a spark of divinity |
| returns to divine reason after death |
| virtuous life lived in accordance with natural law |
| wisdom needed to know what was good, bad or indifferent |
| all contradictions work out for ultimate good |
| life, health, beauty, strength, wealth etc. all neutral or indifferent |
| good and evil are subjective and relative, dispositions of the mind |
| prudence, justice, courage, etc. |
| folly, injustice, cowardice, etc. |
| goal is to live in accordance with divine will |
| fatalistic: we can accept or revolt against fate, but not change it |
| apatheia: freedom from passion |
Contrast with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle |
| these three advocated participation and engagement in political and civic life |
| Socrates focused on the ethical foundations of the polis |
| Plato's Republic, a plan for an ideal state |
| Aristotle had the strongest focus on empirical world |
| the polis is a natural, necessary institution |
| Hellenistic philosophers turned way from engagement with the world |
| advised against involvement in civic and political life |
| lived during a time of large states governed by absolute rulers |
| no opportunity for a polis-like engagement |
| in the case of the Stoics, this attitude gradually changed over time |
| Scipio Africanus the Younger |
Hellenistic Science
Work done by the Alexandrians formed most of the scientific knowledge of the western world until the scientific revolution of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. A few examples:
| Archimedes of Syracuse (3rd century BCE) |
| principles of the lever, pulley and screw |
| law of floating bodies, or specific gravity |
| founded physics as a separate science |
| textbook of plane and solid geometry until 19th century CE |
| Aristarchus of Samos (3rd century BCE) |
| developed a heliocentric theory of the solar system |
| 1800 years before Copernicus! |
| technology not capable of proving theory |
| contrary to traditional geocentric view and common sense |
| Hipparchus of Nicea (2nd century BCE) |
| calculated diameter of moon and distance from the earth |
| developed a complex geocentric model of the solar system |
| accounted for movements of sun, moon and planets |
| model refined by Ptolemy of Alexandria (2nd century CE) |
| posited circles upon circles to explain retrograde motion of planets |
| remained dominant model until Copernicus in 16th century CE |
| Erastosthenes of Cyrene (3rd century BCE) |
| chief librarian of the Library of Alexandria, 245-204 BCE |
| calculated circumference of the earth to w/in 200 miles |
| produced a map of the world that was remarkably accurate in its depiction of the eastern and central Mediterranean |
| more accurate than the Ptolemaic map that became standard in the Middle Ages |
despite these advances, there was no growth of science |
| heliocentric model of Aristarchus |
| no cultural consensus that valued the objective and hypothetical investigation of science |
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